The Computer Underground Essays (9957 words) - Hacker Culture

The Computer Underground THE BAUDY WORLD OF THE BYTE BANDIT: A POSTMODERNIST INTERPRETATION OF THE COMPUTER UNDERGROUND Gordon Meyer and Jim Thomas Department of Sociology Northern Illinois University DeKalb, IL 60115 (5 March, 1990) An earlier version of this paper was presented at the American Society of Criminology annual meetings, Reno (November 9, 1989). Authors are listed in alphabetical order. Address correspondence to Jim Thomas. We are indebted to the numerous anonymous computer underground participants who provided information. Special acknowledgement goes to Hatchet Molly, Jedi, The Mentor, Knight Lightning, and Taran King. ABSTRACT The criminalization of "deviant acts" transforms social meanings into legal ones. Yet, legal meanings are not necessari- ly social meanings. The legitimacy of statutory social control generally requires that one accept the realist textual readings of those with the power to interpret and stigmatize behaviors as inappropriate. "Moral crusades" that lead to definitions of criminalized deviance tend to reduce the meanings of polysemic acts to unidimensional ones that limit understanding of both the nature of the acts and their broader relationship to the culture in which they occur. This has occured with the criminalization of computer phreaking and hacking. In this paper, we examine the computer underground as a cultural, rather than a deviant, phe- nomenon. Our data reveal the computer underground as an invisi- ble community with a complex and interconnected culture, depen- dent for survival on information sharing, norms of reciprocity, sophisticated socialization rituals, and an explicit value sys- tem. We suggest that the dominant image of the computer under- ground as one of criminal deviance results in a failure to appre- ciate cultural meaning. We conclude by arguing that there are characteristics of underground activity that embrace a postmoder- nist rejection of conventional culture. - ii - THE BAUDY WORLD OF THE BYTE BANDIT: A POSTMODERNIST INTERPRETATION OF THE COMPUTER UNDERGROUND Hackers are "nothing more than high-tech street gangs" (Federal Prosecutor, Chicago). Transgression is not immoral. Quite to the contrary, it reconciles the law with what it forbids; it is the dia- lectical game of good and evil (Baudrillard, 1987: 81). There ain't no sin and there ain't no virtue. There's just stuff people do. It's all part of the nice, but that's as far as any man got a right to say (Steinbeck, 1939:31-32). The criminalization of "deviant acts" transforms and reduces social meanings to legal ones. Legal meanings are not necessari- ly social meanings. Most deviancy research tends to reproduce conventional social ideology and operative definitions of normal- ity within its concepts and theories. On occasion, these mean- ings represent a form of "class politics" that protect the power and privilege of one group from the challenge of another: Divorcing moral crusades from status group competition while denying that cultures are linked to social class- es has undermined attempts to link lifestyle politics to group struggles (Beisel, 1990: 45). Once a category of behaviors has become defined by statute as sanctionably deviant, the behaviors so-defined assume a new set of meanings that may obscure ones possessed by those who en- gage in such behaviors. "Computer deviants" provide one example of a criminalized type of "lifestyle politics." The proliferation of computer technology has been accompa- nied by the growth of a computer underground (CU), often mistak- enly labeled "hackers," that is perceived as criminally deviant by the media, law enforcement officials, and researchers. Draw- ing from ethnographic data, we offer a cultural rather than a criminological analysis of the underground by suggesting that it reflects an attempt to recast, re-appropriate, and reconstruct the power-knowledge relationship that increasingly dominates the ideology and actions of modern society. Our data reveal the com- puter underground as an invisible community with a complex and interconnected cultural lifestyle, an inchoate anti-authoritarian political consciousness, and dependent on norms of reciprocity, sophisticated socialization rituals, networks of information sharing, and an explicit value system. We interpret the CU cul- ture as a challenge to and parody of conventional culture, as a playful attempt to reject the seriousness of technocracy, and as an ironic substitution of rational technological control of the present for an anarchic and playful future. Stigmatizing the Computer Underground The computer underground refers to persons engaged in one or more of several activities, including pirating, anarchy, hacking, and phreaking[1]. Because computer underground participants freely share information and often are involved collectively in a single incident, media definitions invoke the generalized meta- phors of "conspiracies" and "criminal rings," (e.g., Camper, 1989; Zablit, 1989), "modem macho" evil-doers (Bloombecker, 1988), moral bankruptcy (Schwartz, 1988), "electronic trespas- sers" (Parker: 1983), "crazy kids dedicated to making mischief"

SUMMARY OF THE MOON IS DOWN essays

SUMMARY OF THE MOON IS DOWN essays In the first chapter, we learn that a small town has been taken over by one of the many Nazi groups during World War Two. Mr. Corell The town good guy, the way I view it, sent the town postmen and policemen on a boating trip, keeping them from the invasion. After the invasion, the Nazis request a meeting with the towns Mayor, Mayor Orden. Joseph and Doctor Winter, two of Mayor Ordens colleagues, await the arrival of Nazis too. The two meet Captain Bentick, a rank lower than Colonel Lanser who is the one who had requested the meeting. Bentick searches the home. During the meeting Annie, Mayor Ordens cook, becomes very aggravated by the soldiers who wait outside the front porch of the Mayors home, and throws a pot of boiling water at them. In the second chapter, Steinbeck explains the characteristics of each of the Nazis. Major Hunter, an engineer, arithmetician, and seemingly indifferent to the fact that he is a soldier. Captain Bentick, a family man, was old and kind. Bentick also has certain admiration to the English. Captain Loft, a young man, took much pride in the fact that he was a soldier. He dreams of his own death on the battlefield, where he is respected. Lieutenants Prackle and Tonder were snot noses, undergraduates, lieutenants, trained in the politics of the day. Colonel Lanser takes much pride in what he does. To me, he sees life as an order given by a higher rank The third chapter begins with a discussion between Annie and Joseph, who are talking about Alexander Morden and the death of Captain Bentick. Joseph reveals to Annie what he surely thinks will happen... Theyll shoot him. Annie is rejecting the awful thought. Unfortunately it is true and Alex will be tried. Molly Morden, Alexs wife, met with the Mayor because of a rumor that had been circulating in the town. You wouldnt convict Alex wo...

Journalism, Mass Media and Communication Term Paper

Journalism, Mass Media and Communication - Term Paper Example This paper talks about the historical development of both the internet and the cell phones and notes some crucial aspects and notable landmarks in the history of telecommunication. In addition, the paper discusses in detail how phones and the internet could be used on security surveillance. There are also various discussions on the usage and adoption of mobile phones in the market. This paper also seeks to explore the various forms of surveillance facilitated by mobile phones and the Internet and discusses the issues of control over personal information and privacy in these contexts (Zhu & Zhou 2002).The issue of security surveillance is very critical. One may generally assume that we are not being monitored in our daily activities but with the current technological advancements, one could be traced by the use of mobile phones and the internet. Information and communication technology has numerous benefits in its application within various sectors of the economy. It is in this regard that the contemporary business environments have embraced the application of technology to tool to facilitate realization of their aims and objectives. Billions of people around the globe presently use internet and mobile phones, which has become a significant component of their everyday lives. Cell phones use is ubiquitous with roughly 6.8 billion subscriptions around the globe (Anderson &Rainie, 2008). In fact, mobile phones play a significant role in the modern telecommunications. The original aspect of the internet can be traced to the first launch of the first artificial earth satellite. In 1957, the USSR launched a successful Sputnik whereas the USA launched the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). ARPA was launched by the US Department of Defense so as to establish US supremacy in technology and science which was applied in the military.

Discuss the ethics of euthanasia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discuss the ethics of euthanasia - Essay Example This concept of mercy killing has always been a bone of contention in the society. The notion that one is allowed to simply take their or someone else’s life just because they are in pain then the value of life is meaningless. It is believed that if someone is meant to die then they will die if not, then it is our responsibility to ensure that they live for as long as possible. There is a big difference between letting someone die and killing them. Euthanasia gives people the impression that it is okay to relieve yourself of life because the suffering has become too great. In some cases however, the turnout of some events are beyond our control. Some patients go to hospitals in great pain but they are so willing to die that one can do nothing to help their situation. When a patient, for instance, refuses to take their medication and insist on doing away with all the burdensome medical procedures, they are bound to die. However, the doctors cannot be blamed for mercy killing in this case because the patient was difficult. The doctrine of double effect is another occurrence that is usually above the medical staff control that people confuse with euthanasia (Keown, 23). When a person is administered to drugs they are meant to help them get better. This is the common knowledge of how hospitals operate that people are familiar with. However, this is not all true since there are some cases that the doctor might administer medication that help manage side effects of diseases but also cause the patients statues to degrade. This is what is known as the doctrine of double effect. In an accident scenario, a doctor might try to relieve the pain of a victim using a drug that might cause their liver to shut down in the process killing them. However, this person will not die painfully but gracefully slip to oblivion. To most people, the thought of taking a life is something that should not even be put into discussion. While most cultures are very

Unforgiven as an anti-wester western Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Unforgiven as an anti-wester western - Essay Example They are particularly interested in fulfilling their objective of no- interference from getting money. This portrays the westerners as men of leisure. Their motivation is self-centered, fulfilling their calling that was to accomplish their mission of killing the Cowboys. Although, to some extent, a material gain can be viewed as secondary in the film, Munny is in need of money. Apart from the farm, he has a family to support. His passion is no longer gun fighting. Munny has â€Å"abandoned that life and only returns to it for what life can offer him, an opportunity to make a fresher start with his family† (David, 49). He gives Beauchamp an account of the story. In the process, he relates what he believes to be a western hero. According to him, accuracy and coolness of head, rather than speed, make a western hero. This makes the film anti- westerners since there are revenge and mistreatment of women. , also personal gain among individual that their primary objective is to get money (David, 33) The Beauchamp is also painted as lonely and somehow melancholy (Kamir, 95). Munny faces Little Bill as well as his disputes singlehandedly, which is quite usual in the western. However, their loneliness is not imposed on them by their situations. Rather, it belongs to them intimately and testifies to their completeness. At the beginning of the movies, Munny has two partners (David, 32). They somehow leave him as results of the film’s narratives developments. Both the Kid and Ned abandon the gunfighter lifestyle. Munny to some extends ends up alone since that is what required by the genre, lonely hero. The film also concerns the generic convention of the Western The film can be witnessed as a version of the west which conforms to heroic modern lives done by most westerns (David, 53). It poetry’s a west that is modernized after losing all its wildness, to the point of reconcilability. Apparently, these changes appear

A Streetcar Named Desire | Blanche And Stella Analysis

A Streetcar Named Desire | Blanche And Stella Analysis Tennessee Williams was America ´s most controversial playwright. He was marked by his troubled private life and was constantly struggling with his own self-doubts. Nevertheless he was the dramatist, who produced some of the most compelling works for the American theatre. In 1947 Tennessee Williams set new standards for American drama with his masterpiece A Streetcar Named Desire. The play opened on December 3, 1947, and was received with great acclaim. Neither the theatre audience at the premiere evening, nor the audiences at the other 844 performances, which the play gave on Broadway, were disappointed and made A Streetcar Named Desire Williams ´ second success on Broadway after his triumph with The Glass Menagerie.  [1]   Down to the present day A Streetcar Named Desire has not lost its enormous fame and fascination. A reason for the perpetual popularity of the play is probably the fact that Williams is the only American playwright, who is able to analyze women with such subtlety and compassion  [2]  . Hence, critics such as Felicia Hardison Londrà © denote Tennessee Williams ´ A Streetcar Named Desire also as a lyrical drama about the decline and fall of Blanche DuBois  [3]  . With this statement Londrà © emphasizes that both, the character as well as the inner development of Blanche Dubois, are the focus of attention in Williams ´ play. However, in my way of thinking, it is not only crucial to examine the Blanche ´s character in detail, but also to study the character of the play ´s second female protagonist Stella, Blanche ´s sister, more closely. Hence, the aim of this seminar paper is to compare and contrast the characters of the two sisters. At the beginning of the paper the author ´s biographical context and the bibliographical history of A Streetcar Named Desire are discussed. In order to lay the foundations for a detailed characterization of the two female protagonists, chapter two contains a brief summary of the play ´s plot, focussing on the internal developments of Blanche and Stella. Afterwards, a detailed analysis of Blanche ´s and Stella ´s character follows. Finally, the most important findings are briefly summed up in the conclusion. 2. Tennessee Williams and his masterpiece A Streetcar Named Desire In order to be able to fully grasp the meaning of Tennessee Williams celebrated play A Streetcar Named Desire, it is absolutely necessary to take the author ´s biographical context as well as the work ´s bibliographical history into account. Biographical context Like in several of his other plays, also the plot of A Streetcar Named Desire was strongly influenced by Williams ´ own biographical background. Tennessee Williams himself stated once that A Streetcar Named Desire was his favourite play since it said everything I had to say  [4]  . Williams never concealed that his works reflect his own history and even welcomed comparisons between his own life and the characters in A Streetcar Named Desire. In a controversial interview with Robert Jennings he explicitly compared himself with his character Blanche DuBois: I can completely identify with Blanche [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] we are both hysterics. Many critics, such as Nancy Tischler, Roger Asselineau, or Kenneth Holditch, asserted that there are several other links between Blanche and Williams. In a letter to his agent Audrey Wood he wrote the following sentence, which again stresses his strong identification with the dramatis personae of his play: I was and still am Blanche [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] [but] I have a Stanley in me, too.  [5]  Nevertheless, the connections between Blanche and Tennessee Williams are not always uncomplicated. In contrast to Tischler, Asselineau and Holditsch, other critics regard the relationship between Blanche and Stanley as a reflection of the contours of William ´s life. They claim that Blanche and Stanley represent divisions of Williams ´ own complex life and personality. Yet studies conducted by John Clum, Mark Lilly and David Savran arrive at another conclusion. All three see Blanche and Stanley as a projection of Tennessee Williams ´ homoerotic desires. Clum, for instance, says that the actions of his heterosexual female character Blanche hide a homosexual subtext.  [6]   Bibliographical history Similar to other of Williams ´ plays the plot of A Streetcar Named Desire evolved over several years.  [7]  Tennessee Williams drew, for instance, much of his inspiration from his life in the French Quarter of New Orleans. During his time in New Orleans he lived on Royal Street. Two streetcars where running down the street. One of the two streetcars was named Desire.  [8]  Accordingly the title of Williams ´ play is among other things an illusion to this particular streetcar. In the early 1940s he outlined the story line as well as his idea for a film version in a letter to his agent Audrey Wood. In this first draft of A Streetcar Named Desire, the play was a one-act drama.  [9]  The story line was mainly based upon a scene which he had written earlier. The plot was murky, but I seem to see a woman sitting in a chair, waiting in vain for something. Maybe love. Moon rays were streaming through the window and that suggested lunacy. I wrote the scene and titled it Blache ´s Chair in the Moon.  [10]   In the end, Tennessee Williams had written twelve different drafts for A Streetcar Named Desire. Each of his drafts had a different title, such as The Poker Night or The Moth, and was first set in Chicago, then in Atlanta and finally in New Orleans. Due to the influence of Elia Kazan, an influential Greek-American director, who staged the play and directed the film version of A Streetcar named Desire, Williams revised his work several times through and after its production, which had a considerable effect on the script of A Streetcar Named Desire. By changing the characters ´ nationality as well as their conception and motivation he transformed the play from a romance to a tragedy. While writing, Williams had to grapple two major problems: firstly, the relationship between Blanche and Stanley, and secondly, the varying degrees and onset of Blache ´s madness.  [11]   Furthermore, four early one-act plays, which were written around 1945, had an impact on A Streetcar named Desire. The first one of these plays is This Property is Condemned, a play focusing on a young girl ´s desires to be like her dead sister, who was a prostitute. The second play, entitled Portrait of a Madonna, chronicles the story of an old maid sent to an asylum after hallucinating. In contrast to the first two plays, The Lady of Larkspur Lotion focuses on a faded southern belle, who had become a prostitute. Moreover, parallels can also be found in Hello from Bertha, a play dealing with a dying prostitute begging her ex-lover to rescue her. In addition to the numerous different drafts of A Streetcar Named Desire, several different editions of the play have been printed up to the present day. For instance, there are substantial differences between the reading and the acting editions. Some differences can also be identified between the American and the English version. In the American version, for instance, the homosexuality of Blanche ´s husband was censored. Another difference is the structure of the play. In the British edition the play is divided into three acts, whereas the play consists of eleven successive scenes in other editions.  [12]   The roles of Blanche DuBois and Stella Kowalski in the plot of A Streetcar Named Desire In order to lay the foundations for the characterization of Blanche DuBois and Stella Kowalski, I would like to give a brief summary of the contents of Tennessee Williams ´ play. Since the aim of this paper is to compare and contrast the characters of the two female protagonists, special attention has hereby been paid to the internal development of Blanche and Stella. In scene one Blanche, a faded southern belle, arrives at the home of her younger sister Stella in a fairly run-down district of New Orleans. She is shocked about the circumstances in which Stella and her husband live and makes no secret of her disapproval. After a warm reunion of the two sisters, Blanche explains that she has taken time out from school, where she is teaching English, because of her upset mental state. Later she further admits that she has lost Belle Reve, their family estate in Mississippi. Although Belle Reve slipped through Blanche ´s fingers, she reproaches Stella for not returning to her home to help her with the troubles. When Stanley returns with his friends from the bowling alley, he accepts Blanche ´s presence; however, the atmosphere between Blanche and Stanley is tense from the beginning. While Blanche is bathing the next day, Stella tells Stanley about the loss of Belle Reve. He immediately suspects Blanche of having swindled them about the reasons for the loss of the family estate. As a result of Stanley ´s mistrust the relationship between Stanley and Blanche becomes more problematic. The situation even becomes worse when Stanley starts inquiring Blanche about the circumstances for the loss of Belle Reve and by it he discovers a bundle of old love letters, which reveal Blanche ´s marriage to a young man, who finally died. Also Stanley discloses a secret and tells Blanche about Stella ´s pregnancy. In the next scene Stanley and his friends are playing poker, when Blanche and Stella return from an evening out together. One of them, Mitch, is very politely to Blanche and pays her compliments. Also Blanche notices that he is superior to the others  [13]  . In contrast to Mitch, Stanley, who has had already one too many, is not delighted about the appearance of the two women. The situation gets out of hand and Stanley beats pregnant wife. Blanche protectively rushes Stella upstairs, but Stanley begs his wife to return to him. In the end Stella, who is somehow attracted by his animal behaviour, forgives her husband and spends the night with him. As scene four opens, it is the following morning and Stella and Blanche are having a private discussion about Stanley. Blanche can obviously not understand why Stella was insane enough to come back in here after what [had] happened  [14]  and tries to persuade her sister to leave him. She tells her of a millionaire, a former admirer of hers, who surely would give them money to start a new life. Yet Stella makes clear that she is not willing to leave her husband and embraces Stanley passionately in front of Blanche, when he sees him come in, to demonstrate her loyalty to him. However, both women do not know that Stanley overheard a good deal of what they said before. Over the course of the summer (scene five and six) it becomes clear that Blanche and Mitch have a deep affection for each other. Blanche event entrusts him with details about her brief marriage, which was overshadowed by her husband ´s homosexuality and his suicide after she had discovered him in bed with another man. Meanwhile, Stanley makes inquiries about Blanche ´s past and unmasks her distinguished behaviour as hypocrisy. He learns about her numerous one night stands and her affair with a seventeen-year-old boy, which led to her dismissal. Scene seven takes place at Blanche ´s Birthday. Stanley, who is craving to get rid of his sister-in-law, passes the gathered information on to Mitch, who does not longer wish to marry her since she is not clean enough to bring in the house with [his] mother  [15]  . Unlike Mitch, Stella is not impressed by her husband ´s story. At the beginning she is denying his reproaches but, as the list lengthens, she defends her sister by referring to her tragic marriage. The mood at Blanche ´s birthday dinner (scene eight) is tense and miserable, because Mitch does not show up. The situation reaches its climax when Stanley presents Blanche with a bus ticket back to Laurel. Blanche is insulted and rushes out. At this moment Stella feels her first labour pains and requests to be taken to hospital. Later the same evening (scene nine), Mitch drops by to confront Blanche with the rumours of her past. Finally, she admits her failures but immediately justifies her behaviour by explaining that her loneliness after her husband ´s death forced her to seek physical affection. After her confession Mitch, who is drunk, tries to rape her, but Blanche manages to kick him out of the apartment. In the subsequent scene Stanley returns fairly cheerful, but drunk, from hospital where Stella is still in labour. At home, he meets Blanche, who is drunk too. Her claim, that she has received a telegram from an oil magnate inviting her on a cruise, is her last attempt to escape into her world of illusions. First Stanley takes the situation with humour until she lies to him about what has happened between her and Mitch. Stanley becomes aggressive and rapes her. This act of violence results in Blanche ´s absolute nervous breakdown. Although Blanche informs Stella that her husband has committed a crime, she decides not to leave him since she couldn ´t believe her story and go on living with Stanley  [16]  . At Stanley ´s request Blanche is admitted to a mental hospital some weeks later (scene eleven). The fact that she believes until the end that she is going on holiday with an admirer (who is actually the doctor) again emphasizes her bad mental condition. Even though Stella is not completely convinced that it was the right decision to admit her sister to a mental home, she makes no attempt to prevent it.

Innocence in Daisy Miller :: Henry James, Daisy Miller

The story of Daisy Miller, by Henry James, is told by a male narrator. This male figure serves to reveal the deep seated stasis in much social interaction which existed in the Nineteenth Century. Winterbourne is the protagonist and 'filters' through his impressions of the heroine Daisy Miller so that we never see Daisy except through the qualifying prose of Winterbourne himself. Thus by the end of the tale, we feel we have not met Daisy at all. We have only caught glimpses of this transient 'flower' almost in spite of the suffocating prevarications of Winterbourne's 'frozen' eye! We feel thwarted by the elusiveness of this heroine! "Poor Winterbourne was amused, perplexed, and decidedly charmed. He had never yet heard a young girl express herself in just this fashion; never, at least, save in cases where to say such things seemed a kind of demonstrative evidence of a certain laxity of deportment. And yet was he to accuse Miss Daisy Miller of actual or potential inconduite, as they said at Geneva? He felt that he had lived at Geneva so long that he had lost a good deal; he had become dishabituated to the American tone. Never, indeed, since he had grown old enough to appreciate things, had he encountered a young American girl of so pronounced a type as this. Certainly she was very charming; but how deucedly sociable! Was she simply a pretty girl from New York State- were they all like that, the pretty girls who had a good deal of gentlemen's society? Or was she also a designing, an audacious, an unscrupulous young person? Winterbourne had lost his instinct in this matter, and his reason could not help him. Miss D aisy Miller looked extremely innocent. Some people had told him that, after all, American girls were exceedingly innocent; and others had told him that, after all, they were not. He was inclined to think Miss Daisy Miller was a flirt- a pretty American flirt. He had never, as yet, had any relations with young ladies of this category. He had known, here in Europe, two or three women- persons older than Miss Daisy Miller, and provided, for respectability's sake, with husbands- who were great coquettes- dangerous, terrible women, with whom one's relations were liable to take a serious turn. But this young girl was not a coquette in that sense; she was very unsophisticated; she was only a pretty American flirt.

Contract Laws Essay

When it comes the laws of business there are a broad range of categories and topics. A topic that we would find when studying business law is contracts. â€Å"A contract is a legally enforceable agreement between two or more people.† (Rogers, 2012) In the world we live in learning about contract laws is very vital when entering into one. We must be aware that there is more than just on type of contract and there are several steps that both parties must follow before any contract can be legal. There are several types of contracts that individuals can enter. These types are expressed, implied, bilateral, unilateral, simple, formal and quasi contracts. An express contract are â€Å"formed by the express language of the parties—the actual words they use in their agreement—and can be either written or oral.† (Rogers, 2012) This type of contract does not have to be in writing. An expressed contract contains the offer, acceptance and consideration elements of a contract. Express contracts are usually compared to implied contracts. Implied contacts are â€Å"formed not by the express words of the parties, but rather by their actions.† (Rogers, 2012) With this type of contract the agreement is implied by actions. There are no expressed words within an implied contract. It can be either implied in fact or in law. If a contract will result in inequity or harm it will not be implied. If there is any doubt or discrepancy exists, then the court might not con clude a contractual relationship. If an implication arises that they have jointly assented to a new contract that contains the same requirements as the old agreement. Another type of contract is a bilateral contract. A bilateral contract is a† reciprocal arrangement between two parties under which both parties promise to perform an act in exchange for  the other party’s act† (BusinessDictionary.com). When entering into a bilateral contract there is a joint agreement among the two parties that entails the performance of an act. The promise made by one party constitutes sufficient consideration for the promise made by the other party. It is a common contract because we enter into a bilateral contract everything we make a purchase, order or receive any kind of treatment. Bilateral contracts are compared to unilateral contract. Unilateral contract are agreements that deal with a promise that is made by only one person involved in the contract. This agreement is when there is an exchange for the performance or non-performance of an act by the other party. Only one of the contracting parties can be enforced to comply with contract. This type of contract is one-sided because only the offeror is legally bound in complying with the terms of the contract. The offeree can comply or refrain from performing the act, but he or she cannot be sued if they do not comply. If you accept an offer from a unilateral contract it cannot be achieved by making another agreement only by performance or non-performance of some particular act. An offer can be revoked until the act has been performed or there was no act completed and the date has passed. The following contract is called a simple contract. It is in no way a lawfully recorded or legitimately sealed contract, but breeches are still frequently ruled on by a judge. It â€Å"is any oral or written contract that is not required to follow a specific form, or be signed, witnessed, or sealed.† (Rogers, 2012). They are not necessarily formalized contracts and do not entail court proceedings in order to make them binding. They are simply an agreement that is among the parties involved. They are usually compared to formal contracts. Formal contract are â€Å"a written agreement between two parties that are considered to be legally binding and enforced my law† (Laws.com). They must be in writing, signed and seal by all parties entering into the contract. In order for a formal contract to be valid it must contain three elements, which are the offer, the acceptance and a payment for the services provided or goods delivered. This type of contract eliminates any uncertainty regarding its terms and conditions. It contains a preface section which is utilized to clearly define the essentials terms that are utilized within the contract. This helps in eliminating redundancy in the use of common language. It also insures substantive terms of the contract  that are described and referenced in t he contract. Quasi contracts are the last type of contract discussed in the text. Quasi contracts are not a realistic contract. â€Å"They are a remedy that a court may offer to make things fair.† (Rogers, 2012). This type of contract is implied by law. Courts will imply a fictional contract to require one party to return benefits to the other party where unjust enrichment has occurred. Unjust enrichment doctrine deals with the equality of a quasi contract. It states that no party should profit at the expense of the other without making restitution of a reasonable value. When there is no oral or written agreement, courts depend on this doctrine to provide a legal remedy for a quasi contract. A Quasi contract can be compared to an implied contract. There are two types of implied contracts. These types are Implied-in-fact and Implied-by-law. A quasi contract is considered to be an Implied-by-law. It is different from an implied-in-fact because the courts treat the former as an express written contract because of the actions and words that both parties have expressed. Even though neither party has verbally expressed the acceptance of the contract their actions might be viewed differently. A contracted can be valid and enforceable, but can also be found to be unenforceable and can be voided. In order for a contract to be valid and enforceable it must contain the five elements of a contract to be legally binding. These elements are offer, acceptance, consideration, legality and capacity. The first element of a valid contract is the offer. An offer â€Å"is an invitation for another to enter into a contract† (Rogers, 2012). Offers can be verbal or written, but must at all times be clear terms. They can be bilateral or unilateral terms. They are not legally binding. Offers can be voided is any of the individuals involved cannot or do not comply with their promise. Offers can also be voided, repealed or annulled after parties have accepted the offer, unless there is a clause where it states that revocations are not allowed. The following element is acceptance. An acceptance â€Å"is an acquiescence to enter into a contract under the terms of the offer† (Rogers, 2012). Once an offer is made the parties must agree on the terms. All parties must be willing to enter into the agreement. Acceptances can be implied or  expressed. They can be directed to all parties involved or just one person. There are times when the individual making the offer will invite the person accepting the offer by actually performing the acts that the offeror is bargaining for. This occurs when special tribulations of notification, revoking and confidence in the form of limited performance can occur. Consideration is the next element of a valid contract. A consideration is â€Å"anything of legal value that is asked for and received as the price for entering into a contract† (Rogers, 2012). For a contract to be considered to be legally binding it must be supported by a valuable consideration. For instance, a party is required to do something in exchange for the promise that was made in a benefit of value. It is what each individual in the contact provides to the other as the established value for the other’s promise. For the most part, considerations are usually a payment of money, but are not always. At times they can be a promise to do something such as a type of work in return for something. The fourth element is legality. This is â€Å"an agreement may be considered illegal if it would violate a statute; result in commission of a tort; or violate public policy.† (Rogers, 2012). In contract law, legality of purpose is required of every enforceable contract. Agreement of a social nature are presumed not to be legally binding, but with evidence can be rebutted in court. Also, any domestic agreements such as agreements created by a parent and a child are generally unenforceable on the basis of the system of law. The last element is capacity. Capacity is â€Å"the mental competency of an individual and also with special rules for people who are under legal age† (Rogers, 2012). In other words, it deals with the competence of all parties. In order for an individual to enter into a contract they must be capable to do so. All parties entering the contract have to be over the legal age, mentally capable and cannot be under the influence of drugs or alcohol. If a contract is made with an individual that is under the age of 18 or 21, depending on the jurisdiction, the contract is voidable, but is legal and enforceable until or unless the individual revokes it. In the  eyes of the law, individuals under the age of 18 or 21 are deemed to be immature and naà ¯ve to enter into a contract. The individual may avoid the legal duty to perform the terms of the agreement without being liable of breach of contract. All parties must also be mentally capable of entering into a contract. If a party does not understand the nature and/or consequences of the contract when it is formed the contract can be voided. An individual that lacks the legal capacity can be declared incompetent in a court and can be appointed a legal guardian. If someone is to enter into a contract with someone who is not mentally capable the contract will be voided and there will not be any legal effects because neither party may be legally compelled to comply with the terms. Lastly, no one entering in to a contract can be intoxicated. All parties must be sober at the time of entering a contract in order for the contract to be deemed enforceable. When someone is under the influence they are not capable of knowing what they are doing and why. They might also not comprehend the terms of the contract which makes it unenforceable. A contact can appear to be legally binding because it may contain all the elements of a contract, but there are defenses to a contract that can also make a contract unenforceable and voidable. There are two types of defense to a contract, which are lack of genuine assent and lack of proper form. Genuine assent or â€Å"meeting on the minds† is a criteria utilized to determine validity of acceptance of an offer for a contract. This occurs when the acceptance of a contract is secured through improper or illegal means such as fraud, mistake, duress and undue influence. The first type of genuine assent that will be discussed is fraud. Fraud is the premeditated falsification of an essential matter of the contract. When there is an existence of fraud in a contractual proceeding it makes the contract unenforceable and can be voided by the party upon whom the deception was perpetrated. According to our text, there are two types of fraud, which are fraud in the execution and fraud in the inducement. Fraud in the execution merely occurs when one of the individuals who entered in to the contract isn’t aware that they are entering in to one. The second fraud is when both parties are aware they are entering into the contract, but one of the  parties is deceived when entering into it. The following type that can make a contract unenforceable and invalid is a mistake. A mistake is also known as a mutual mistake. When there is a mistake this means that both parties made a mistake to something that is vital to the contract. Just because one party can make a mistake doesn’t necessarily mean that the contract is voidable. In order for it to be considered as unenforceable it must have a significant effect on the exchange or bargaining development. The following factor is duress. Duress is when one party forces the other party to sign a contract. The force can be either physical or emotional pressure. When there is use of duress the contract is voidable by the party that was under duress during signing. Duress can be defined by three categories, which are actual or threatened violence to an individual, threats to an individual’s property and/or economic duress. Economic duress is the more difficult to prove because you have to establish the boundaries of acceptance behavior of this kind of pressure. Duress is sometimes compared to undue influence, but there are different. As mentioned above, duress deals with someone being pressured into signing the contract, whereas undue influence is when a party is manipulated in to signing the contract. If one party has put inequitable and inappropriate pressure on the other in the discussions leading to the signing of the contract, common law will allow duress and undue influence to allow for the terms of the contract to be set aside. Common laws are laws â€Å"made by the decisions of judges in individual cases. â€Å" (Rogers, 2012). Undue influence is easy to recognize because it can involve the parties having a fiduciary relationship or one of the members involved depends on another due to their age, illness, infirmity, etc. A fiduciary relationship is a relationship where one individual has a responsibility to act for the other’s benefit. When undue influence occurs the individual who is suppose to be helping the other person out is taking advantage of that person. Lastly, the second type of defense to a contract as listed above is lacks proper form. This is generally when it lacks writing. There are certain types of contracts that are required to be in writing, but at times we aren’t aware. If these types of contracts are not in writing then they  cannot be enforced. It is important to learn about contract laws. They are the foundation of our society. Since we enter into contracts on a daily bases we should be aware of these laws. Contracts can be complicated and having knowledge of the different types and what makes them enforceable or voided can really be helpful. If there were no laws on contract then the agreements we make could become impractical and unworkable. References Lewinsohn, J. L. (1914). Contract Distinguished From Quasi Contract. California Law Review, 2(3), 171. Rogers, S. (2012). Essentials of Business Law. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc. Smith, C. A. (2012). Contracts. http://www.west.net/~smith/contracts.htm Information regarding elements of a contract and remedies for breach. Undefined. (n.d.). Bilateral Contract. In BusinessDictionary.com. Retrieved May 2, 2014, from http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/bilateral-contract.html. Undefined. (n.d.). Know the types of Formal Contract. In Laws.com. Retrieved May 2, 2014, from http://contract-law.laws.com/types-of-contracts/types-of-formal-contract.

Focusing Through Scattering Media With High Speed Characterization Engineering Essay

The formation of a focal point through a randomly dispersed dispersing medium proves to be hard because the incident light wave front is quickly destroyed inside this medium by multiple sprinkling. Controling light extension through dispersing media is of cardinal involvement in optics and critical for applications in biomedical imagination and stuffs review ( I. M. Vellekoop et Al, 2007 ) . The chief purpose of this undertaking is to optimise the wave front utilizing liquid crystal spacial visible radiation modulator ( LC-SLM ) and deformable mirror device ( DMD ) with high exchanging velocity. There are three chief grounds. First, driven by the demand of modern non-invasive optical imagination, which is still a great challenge to modern scientific discipline and engineering, the ability of concentrating visible radiation through extremely dispersing media can enable betterments in biological microscopy in biological tissue ( J. Aulbach et Al, 2011 ) . Second, the information about the initial wave front, though extremely scrambled, is non lost in the scattering field but can be retrieved by undoing the dispersing procedure by propagating through the turbid medium itself. Third, in order to enable dramatic betterments in imaging deepness and contrast, fast rate commanding wave front is necessary to get the better of the spot decorrelation times of populating biological stuffs. Our long term end is to find how fast we can optimise wave front with iterative techniques in order to acquire a better biological image with deep deepness. We try to carry through this possibility through the undermentioned aims: ( I ) Use iterative methods that divide the incident visible radiation on a scattering sample into N spacial input manners and utilize the estimated transmittal matrix to foretell the SLM input province that will optimise an end product province. ( two ) To seek a new high-velocity stage mask optimisation technique, which utilizes off-axis binary-amplitude comp uter-generated holography implemented on a deformable mirror device ( DMD ) with an optical strength detector like CCD camera supplying control feedback. We propose to utilize a assortment of stuffs of natural beginning like Rutile TiO2 and Chicken eggshell to verify the cosmopolitan pertinence of inversion of wave diffusion. The rational virtue of the proposed activity: This undertaking connects country of the optical imagination and biological tissues. And it provides a tract for get the better ofing the repeated sprinkling and intervention jobs, doing it possible to concentrate through cloudy media and enable an betterment in biological imagination. The broader impacts ensuing from the proposed activity: This undertaking will progress the basic techniques to fast control incident light wave front and acquire better biological image with deep deepness and contrast. This undertaking will besides plan user interface package designed in python linguistic communication, allowing it to be more convenient to detect biological tissues.Undertaking NARRATIVE/DESCRIPTIONI. Introduction or Specific Purposes:1 ) Motivation:Acquire clear and better image of high declaration by concentrating through dispersing media.2 ) Hypothesis:Word picture of high-scattering medium may be achieved by commanding wavefront transition via high exchanging rates modulator.3 ) Specific Aims:a ) Optimize the incident light wave front with Spatial Light Modulator ( SLM ) to concentrate an image through cloudy medium. Divide the incident visible radiation by iterative methods on a scattering sample into N spacial input manners. Use the estimated transmittal matrix to foretell the SLM input province that will optimise an end product province and step the strength of the visible radiation. B ) To seek a fast stage mask optimisation technique utilizing deformable mirror device ( DMD ) to get the better of the fast spot decorrelation times of biological tissues. Use off-axis holography implemented on a DMD with an optical strength detector like CCD camera supplying control feedback. Measure the exchanging velocity to obtain a high velocity word picture of dispersing media.4 ) Significance:This undertaking will progress the basic techniques to fast control incident light wave front and acquire better biological image with deep deepness and contrast. This undertaking can link country of the optical imagination and biological tissues. And it can supply a tract for get the better ofing the repeated sprinkling and intervention jobs, doing it possible to concentrate through cloudy media and enable an betterment in biological imagination.II. Background and Preliminary Surveies:Random sprinkling of light makes some stuffs like milk and biological tissues opaque. Repeated sprinkling and intervention in these stuffs distort the incident light wave fronts so strongly that all spacial coherency is lost ( 4 ) . Aberrances and random dispersing badly limit optical imagination in deep tissue. A figure of research groups have demonstrated optical focussing through dispersing media. Controling light extension through dispersing media is of cardinal involvement in optics and critical for applications in biomedical imagination and stuffs review ( I. M. Vellekoop et Al, 2007 ) . There is an increasing involvement in wavefront control techniques fo r concentrating through cloudy media ( I. M. Vellekoop et Al, 2008 ) . These methods chiefly depend on the deterministic nature of multiple dispersing to determine the incident wave front and pre-compensate for the scattering effects of light extension. Many researches use iterative methods that divide the incident visible radiation on a scattering sample into N spacial input manners ( M. Cui et Al, 2011 ) with a end of optimising strength at a point on the opposite side of the medium. An optical strength detector like CCD camera provides control feedback. Other iterative techniques optimize the input manners in analogue, therefore increasing the velocity at which the focal point is formed ( S. Popoff et Al, 2010 ) . Besides, there are some other techniques that measure the transmittal matrix through the scattering stuff ( G. Lerosey et Al, 2007 ) . In transmittal matrix optimisation the relationship between optical input and end product manners of the system is estimated from the e nsemble of N spacial visible radiation modulator ( SLM ) input provinces and N matching end product provinces. Using that relationship one can optimise focal point at any point in the mensural field. Optical or digital stage junction has besides been used to enter the scattered field and return a focussing beam through the turbid media ( M. Cui et Al, 2007 ) . The ability of concentrating visible radiation through extremely dispersing media can enable betterments in biological microscopy in biological tissue. Light dispersing limits the imaging deepness into biological stuffs, and it could be compensated via wave front control. However, populating biological stuffs have speckle decorrelation times on the msec timescale ( M. Cui et Al, 2007 ) . This fast rate of alteration is a large job for current methods of concentrating through turbid media because of exchanging rate restrictions imposed by the wavefront transition device. Recently many researches implement phase-only wavefront transition utilizing liquid crystal spacial visible radiation modulators ( LC-SLM ) ( I. M. Vellekoop et Al, 2007 ) , which is more efficient for making a focal point than amplitude lone transition ( I. Vellekoop et Al, 2010 ) . But the LC-SLMs shift velocity is limited by the rate at which the liquid crystals can aline in the device. Therefore, new high-speed techniques for optimising stage masks are required to implement concentrating through biological samples. We want to seek a new high-velocity stage mask optimisation technique, which utilizes off-axis binary-amplitude computer-generated holography implemented on a deformable mirror device ( DMD ) ( D. Dudley et Al, 2003 ) and demonstrate wave front finding about one order of magnitude faster than the anterior province of the art. Furthermore, the transportation matrix attack provides a general and thorough word picture of the dispersing medium that non merely allows for the focussing on a given point in infinite but besides enables the finding of wave fronts for other optical processing applications ( G. Lerosey et Al, 2008 ) . The deformable mirror device ( Figure 1. a ) is a critical constituent of an adaptative ocular system. It is used to use the rectification to the distorted wave front. In current systems the deformable mirror device is the most expens ive constituent. Recent technological progresss have presented alternate engineerings for deformable mirror devices. Three engineerings: liquid crystals, stacked piezoelectrics, and Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems. The MEMS shows peculiar promise. MicroElectroMechanical Systems ( MEMS ) deformable mirrors are presently the most widely used engineering in wavefront defining applications given their versatility, adulthood of engineering, and the high-resolution wave front rectification that they afford. Using advanced, cheap fabrication engineering, the public presentation strengths of MEMS DMs are built-in to micromachining: a ) Thousands of Actuators: big actuator arrays allow for high-resolution wave front rectification. B ) Sophisticated Surface Control: advanced microstructures minimize the influence between neighbouring actuators, allowing high frequence forms on the mirror surface and doing high order rectification possible. degree Celsius ) High Speed: optimized design enable s rapid wave front determining for high-velocity applications. After optimized by deformable mirrors device ( Figure 1. B ) , we want to utilize wavefront detector to mensurate the strength sweetening of the focal point and so give feedback to the computing machine to command the wavefront transition. We try to utilize the adaptative optics system ( Figure 1. degree Celsius ) . Adaptive optics systems comprise three chief elements: a ) Wavefront detector: measures the stage aberrance in the optical wave front. B ) Deformable mirror: adjusts its place to rectify for the aberrance. degree Celsius ) Control system: receives measurings from the detector and calculates the disciplinary motion of the deformable mirror.III. Experiment Approach:1 ) Using Python linguistic communication to command the CCD ( Charge-coupled Device ) camera and get the dynamic image of an object with demoing the strength of the visible radiation. Experimental design and principle. We will utilize Pike F-032B/C camera which is fixed on experiment tabular array to acquire the images after concentrating by certain focal lens. The Pike F-032B/C is a really fast VGA camera with premium image quality and a fast FireWire 1394b interface that can be connected with the computing machine easy. It is equipped with a Kodak KAI-0340 CCD detector. At full declaration, it runs 208 Federal Protective Service. Higher frame rates can be reached by a smaller AOI ( Automatic Optic Inspection ) , binning ( b/w ) , or sub-sampling. Programing in Python linguistic communication will command the camera to put up the exposure clip, take image and besides save the images as a certain file. The image that we take is 8-bit with a colour scope from 0 to 255 which means that ruddy is of high strength while bluish is of low strength. We will utilize python to change over it into 16-bit which is of high quality than former one. Besides, we will make an interface window for the user to command the camera comfortably ( see figure1 ( degree Celsius ) ) . 2 ) Use SLM ( Spatial Light Modulator ) to steer and concentrate visible radiation through dispersing stuffs by spatially determining the wave front of the incident optical maser beam. Experiment apparatus and design. A elaborate schematic of the experiment is shown in Figure1 ( a ) . A polarized optical maser beam with a wavelength of 488 nanometer is expanded by a factor of 9 utilizing the spacial filter formed by L1, L2 and projected onto the spacial visible radiation modulator ( SLM ) with an extra 2x magnification. The strength of the optical maser is reduced by a impersonal denseness filter and mulct adjusted utilizing a combination of a rotatable half moving ridge home base ( HWP ) and a polarizer ( PBS1 ) . The beam is shaped spatially utilizing a brooding phase-only SLM. The pels of the SLM are grouped into 50A-50 square sections. The SLM is connected to the digital picture interface ( DVI ) end product of a picture artworks card in the Personal computer. The search tabular array in the SLM hardware was configured so that grey values of 0-255 correspond to phase holds of 0 ~ ( 255/128 ) Iˆ severally. The computing machine sets the stage for each of the sections. The SLM and all other hardware are controlled by usage ActiveX constituents written in C linguistic communication. Hardware acceleration is used to accomplish existent clip ( 60 frames per second ) public presentation. The constituents were ‘wired together ‘ in the scripting linguistic communication Python to command different experiments. A lens and a 10x microscope nonsubjective image the surface of the SLM onto the surface of the pupa. The front surface is in the focal plane of microscope nonsubjective O1. The back surface of the pupa is imaged onto a CCD camera utilizing nonsubjective O2 and lens L6. We defined a mark country on the camera, matching to a circle with a diameter of 0.5 I?m on the sample surface. The computing machine plan integrates the camera strength over this mark country to supply a feedback signal for the algorithm. The moving ridge is optimized continuously and the breakdown algorithm dynamically follows alterations in the spot form. How good the alterations can be followed is quantified by the ratio of the continuity clip of the spot Tp to the clip needed for a individual loop of the algorithm Ti. The theoretically accomplishable sweetening for this algorithm peers I ·= 0.5Tp/Ti, when the figure of modulator sections N is big plenty ( N & gt ; & gt ; Tp/Ti ) . 3 ) Use a phase-control holographic technique via deformable mirror device ( DMD ) that can be updated at high informations rates enabling high velocity wave front measurings to qualify dispersing media with the intent of concentrating visible radiation through it. Experiment apparatus and design. A collimated and expanded 532 nanometers laser illuminates the DMD, which consists of an array of 1024Ãâ€"768 mirrors, as shown in Figure1 ( B ) . We use N = 256 or 1024 inputs to a individual end product manners defined by the photodetector. To implement the transmittal matrix measuring method with the DMD we generate 768 binary amplitude holographs for N = 256, or 3072 holographs for N = 1024. The experimental diffraction efficiency of the holograph with the DMD was 6-10 % of the incident power. All holographs are loaded onto the DMD memory, which in concurrence with high-velocity package, allows for DMD control at maximal frame rate. A Fourier transforming lens is placed one focal length off from the DMD. An flag placed after this lens in the Fourier plane blocks all diffraction orders, except for the 1st diffraction order, where the stage mask information is encoded. The 1st order visible radiation is so propagated through another Fourier transforming lens, which images the stage mask at the back aperture of a 20X ( NA = 0.5 ) aim lens that focuses the beam onto the scattering sample. A 100X ( NA = 0.75 ) aim images a plane ~1 millimeter behind the dispersing sample onto a 50 I?m pinhole placed before a photodetector. The back aim and the pinhole size are selected to fit the pinhole to the speckle size of the visible radiation scattered by the sample. The photodetector electromotive force is digitized and sent to the computing machine, where it is used to cipher the transmittal matrix through the dispersing stuff to the individual end product manner. A Python plan controls all system calculation and synchronism. By utilizing a photodetector the strength measuring is oversampled in clip and an mean value is used for the strength step to filtrate noise. A non-polarizing beamsplitter placed after the tubing lens and before the pinhole creates a 2nd image plane on a CCD array for imaging the focal point topographic point. We try to utilize the adaptative optics system to carry through this aim. Wavefront detector will mensurate the stage aberrance in the optical wave front. Deformable mirror can set its place to rectify for the aberrance. And the control system will have measurings from the detector and cipher the disciplinary motion of the deformable mirror.IV. Expected Results and Broader Impact:1 ) Expected Consequences:We expect that precise control of diffuse visible radiation can be possible utilizing an optimum, noiterative algorithm and that visible radiation can be directed through opaque objects to organize one or multiple focal point. Besides, reverse wave diffusion can hold applications in imagination and light bringing in dispersing media, perchance including metal nano-structures. We expect that high velocity wavefront optimisation for concentrating through turbid media utilizing a DMD with off-axis binary amplitude holography for stage control and the transmittal matrix method adapted t o the undertaking. With this attack we demonstrated an order of magnitude betterment in measurement velocity over the current fastest wavefront finding method ( I. M. Cui et al,2010 ) and three orders of magnitude betterment over LC-SLM methods ( I. M. Vellekoop et al,2007 ) . This undertaking will besides plan user interface package designed in python linguistic communication, allowing it to be more convenient to detect biological tissues.2 ) Broader Impact:This undertaking can link country of the optical imagination and biological tissues. And it can supply a tract for get the better ofing the repeated sprinkling and intervention jobs, doing it possible to concentrate through cloudy media and enable an betterment in biological imagination. This undertaking will progress the basic techniques to fast control incident light wave front and acquire better biological image with deep deepness and contrast. This method should hold plenty velocity to get the better of the fast spot decorrelation times of biological samples and bring forth plenty concentrating power for a assortment of biomedical detection and imagination applications.Table 1. Conjectural Measured Intensity Enhancement for Different MaterialsSampleL ( um )NitrogenRutile TiO2 Chicken eggshellaˆÂ ¦aˆÂ ¦Figure CaptionFigure 1. a ) The large-scale deformable mirror uses MEMS-like constituents. The electrically-grounded spring bed is deformed by electrostatic attractive force to electrodes on the base bed. Its gesture is translated to the mirror through a set of stations. B ) A deformable mirror can be used to rectify wavefront mistakes. degree Celsius ) A conventional diagram of the adaptative optics system with each of these elements. Figure2 ( a ) Detailed schematic of the wave front determining setup. Figure2 ( B ) Mirror cells of DMD. Figure2 ( degree Celsius ) Python designed user interface. Figure1 ( vitamin D ) Apparatus for concentrating through dispersing media. Figure 1 Basic Construction of Deformable Mirror Device and Adaptive Optics System Figure 2 The schematic of the wave front determining setup and apparatusMentions CITEDJournal of the Optical Society of America, 2011 ISI Impact Factor: 2.185 1. I. M. Vellekoop and A. P. Mosk, â€Å" Concentrating coherent visible radiation through opaque strongly dispersing media, † Opt. Lett. 32 ( 16 ) , 2309-2311 ( 2007 ) . 2. I. M. Vellekoop, A. Lagendijk, and A. P. Mosk, â€Å" Exploiting upset for perfect focussing, † Nat. Photonics 4 ( 5 ) , 320-322 ( 2010 ) . 3. J. Aulbach, B. Gjonaj, P. M. Johnson, A. P. Mosk, and A. Lagendijk, â€Å" Control of light transmittal through opaque dispersing media in infinite and clip, † Phys. Rev. Lett. 106 ( 10 ) , 103901 ( 2011 ) . 4. P. Sebbah, ed. , Waves and Imaging through Complex Media ( Kluwer, 2001 ) . 5. I. M. Vellekoop and A. P. Mosk, â€Å" Phase control algorithms for concentrating visible radiation through cloudy media, † Opt. Commun. 281 ( 11 ) , 3071-3080 ( 2008 ) . 6. M. Cui, â€Å" Parallel wavefront optimisation method for concentrating visible radiation through random dispersing media, † Opt. Lett. 36 ( 6 ) , 870-872 ( 2011 ) . 7. S. Popoff, G. Lerosey, M. Fink, A. C. Boccara, and S. Gigan, â€Å" Image transmittal through an opaque stuff, † Nat Commun 1 ( 6 ) , 81 ( 2010 ) . 8. G. Lerosey, J. de Rosny, A. Tourin, and M. Fink, â€Å" Concentrating beyond the diffraction bound with far-field clip reversal, † Science 315 ( 5815 ) , 1120-1122 ( 2007 ) . 9. I. Vellekoop and C. Aegerter, â€Å" Concentrating visible radiation through life tissue, † San Francisco, California, USA, SPIE 7554, 755430 ( 2010 ) . 10. M. Cui and C. Yang, â€Å" Execution of a digital optical stage junction system and its application to analyze the hardiness of turbidness suppression by stage junction, † Opt. Express 18 ( 4 ) , 3444-3455 ( 2010 ) . 11. D. Dudley, W. Duncan, and J. Slaughter, â€Å" Emerging digital micromirror device ( DMD ) applications, † Proc. SPIE 4985, 14-25 ( 2003 ) .Budget and JustificationSUMMARY PROPOSAL BUDGETaˆˆaˆˆaˆˆFOR NSF USE ONLY ORGANIZATION University of Georgia Research Foundation Inc PROPOSAL NO. DURATION ( months ) Proposed PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR/ PROJECT DIRECTOR Peter Kner AWARD NO.aˆˆA. Senior Forces: PI/PD, CO-PI ‘S, Faculty and Other Senior Associates ( List each individually with rubric, A.7. show figure in brackets ) NSF Funded person-months Fundss Requested by suggester CAL ACAD SUMR 1. Peter Kner – Pi 1.00 0.00 0.00 8,941 2.aˆˆaˆˆaˆˆaˆˆ3. 4. 5. 6. ( 0 ) OTHERS ( LIST INDIVIDUALLY ON BUDGET JUSITIFICATION PAGE ) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 7. ( 1 ) TOTAL SENIOR PERSONNEL ( 1-6 ) 1.00 0.00 0.00 B. OTHER PERSONNEL ( SHOW NUMBERS IN BRACKETS ) 1. ( 0 ) POST DOCTORAL SCHOLARS 2. ( 0 ) OTHER PROFESSIONALS ( TEHCNICIAN ) 3. ( 1 ) Alumnus Students 4. ( 0 ) UNDERGRAUDATE Students 5. ( 0 ) SECRETARIAL – CLERICAL ( IF CHARGED DIRECTLY )aˆˆ6. ( 0 ) OTHERSaˆˆEntire SALARIES AND WAGES ( A + B ) 27,433 C. FRINGE BENEFITS ( IF CHARGED AS DIRECT COSTS ) 2,200 Entire SALARIES, WAGES AND FRINGE BENEFITS ( A + B + C ) 29,633 D. EQUIPEMNT ( LIST ITEM AND DOLLAR AMOUNT FOR EACH ITEM EXCEEDING $ 5,000. )aˆˆSLM 20,000 aˆˆ DMD 30,000 Entire EQUIPMENTaˆˆaˆˆaˆˆaˆˆaˆˆ50,000 E. TRAVEL 1. DOMENSTIC ( INCL. CANADA, MEXICO AND U.S. POSSESSIONS ) 2,000 2. FOREIGN 0 F. PARTICIPANT SUPPORT COSTSaˆˆ1. STIPENDS$0aˆˆ2. Travel 0aˆˆ3.SUBSISTENCE 0aˆˆ4. OTHERaˆˆ0aˆˆEntire NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS ( 0 ) Sum PARICIPANT COSTS 0 G. OTHER DIRECT COSTSaˆˆ1. MATERIALS AND SUPPLIES 17,600 2. PUBLICATION COSTS/ DOCUMENTATION/ DISSEMINATIONaˆˆ3. CONSULTANT SERVICESaˆˆ4. Computer SERVIESaˆˆ5. SUBAWARDSaˆˆ6. OTHERaˆˆTOTAL OTHER DIRECT COSTS 17,600 H. TOTAL DIRECT COSTS ( A THROUGH G ) 49,233 I. Indirect COSTS ( F & A ; A ) ( SPECIFY RATE AND BASE )aˆˆEntire INDIRECT COSTS ( F & A ; A ) 0 J. TOTAL DIRECT AND INDIRECT COSTS ( H + I ) 49,233 K. RESIDUAL FUNDS 0 L. AMOUNT OF THIS REQUEST ( J ) OR ( J MINUS K ) 49,233 M. COST SHARING PROPOSED LEVEL $ 0 AGREED LEVEL IF DIFFERENT $ PI/PD NAME FOR NSF USE ONLY Peter Kner Indirect COST RATE VERIFICATION ORG. REP. NAME Date Checked Date of Rate SheetaˆˆaˆˆaˆˆBudget JustificationA.1.Dr. Peter Kner, Director, will work one person-months on the undertaking at an hourly rate of $ 51.58/hr.1 months * 173.33hrs/month * $ 51.58/hr = $ 8,941B.3.Two other forces will work on the undertaking.2 Alumnus Students1person*12 months * $ 1541/month = $ 18,492C. Fringe Benefits8 % TOTAL SALARIES AND WAGES ( A+B ) is used to cover periphery benefits.$ 1,700 for medical benefits$ 500 for alveolar consonant and visionD.1.Spatial visible radiation modulator $ 20,000Deformable mirror device $ 30,000E.1.Travel and Communication $ 2,000G.1. Materials and SuppliesMaterials/Supplies Cost/unit Units CostChemical Samples $ 120/unit 100units $ 12000.00Electronicss $ 200/unit 3 units $ 600.00Turbid media $ 500/unit 10 units $ 5000.00$ 17,600.00

buy custom Direct-to Consumer Advertising essay

buy custom Direct-to Consumer Advertising essay Direct-to-consumer advertising (abbreviated as DTCA) refer to the promotion of the sales of the prescription drugs by increasing public awareness about the pharmaceutical products through magazine, internet, newspaper, and television marketing. Several pharmaceutical drug producing companies and their distribution outlets put much emphasis on the extensive use of DTCA as the only tool of marketing. In this quest, the pharmaceutical companies and their distribution outlets produce and widely distribute promotional materials such as videos, bronchures, outdoor exhibitions, branded pens, t-shirts, and attractive caps. According to the findings of a recent survey conducted by World Health Organization (WHO), pharmaceutical companies spend approximately 60% of their revenues towards direct-to-consumer advertising. There are several controversies surrounding DTCA in promotion of the prescription drugs to the patient groups and medical professionals. The pharmaceutical companies argue that direct advertising educates the general public about the availability and usefulness of the drug to their lives. Nevertheless, medical practitioners and other drug licensing and regulatory authorities denounce the practice on the ground that the practice would definitely expose the general public to the potential harm of the uncontrolled usage of the said prescription drugs. Even though DTCA is a common place in United States of America and New Zealand, the practice is prohibited in other parts of the world particularly across the continents of Europe and Australia. The reality of DTCA has sparked off a lot of uproar in the public domain. The proponents maintain that intensive advertisement of the prescription drugs to the general public is of great good to their health and that the duly created awareness guarantee improved medical care to the entire population. On the other hand, the critics insist that such DTCA is an outright abuse of the media to market pharmaceutical drugs through unscrupulous advertisements. The existence of these opposing arguments makes is very difficult to determine whether DTCA is truly an unethical or ethical practice in the medical field. This paper attempts therefore to investigate the morality of the DTCA in the modern world. 2.0 Merits Associated with DTCA The DTCA is a commonplace in the United States of America and New Zealand and the regulatory authorities controlling public consumption of the pharmaceutical products allow for the advertisements of the drugs in the said countries. Many pharmaceutical firms market their prescription drugs on the mass media such as magazines, newspapers, medical journals, leaflets, flyers, bronchures, and electronic media. The drug producing firms target paient groups and other category of healthy citizens in the advertisements. According to the claims of these drug producing companies, the popularization of the prescription drugs create awareness among the general public on the existence and availability of different drugs as well as the benefits of these drugs. The producers maintain that proper knowledge about these drugs will improve public health considering that masses of the population are fully informed about the drugs and the corresponding symptoms, diseases, and illnesses they treat. As such, the common citizens are relieved of the burden and exorbitant expenses involved in seeking clinical assistance from professional physicians. As a result, marketing of the prescription drugs reduces the costs of healthcare in the countries where they are in place. Considering the healthcare benefits people accrue from the DTCA, the question of whether the practice is ethical or unethical is out of place. The consequential approach supersedes just the mere virtue of denouncing the act based on the principle of morality. In this situation, the widely perceived immoral direct-to-consumer advertising is highly permissible and to larger extent deemed moral. The judgment is entirely based on the standards of rationality formulated by Kant commonly referred to as the imperative categorical. 3.0 Dangers Associated with the DTCA In another perspective, there are several dangers arising from the marketing and subsequent promotion of the prescription drugs through direct-to-consumer advertising- a phenomenon that has led to its disbandment in many parts of the world with an exception of New Zealand and United States of America. The prospective threats and dangers direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription drugs pose to the general public outweighs the benefits by far. To begin with, most of the advertisings are attractive in nature but does not bear right information necessary for the safety of the general public (Agero Hanns, p. 123). In their 2007 medical journal, Impact of direct-to-consumer advertising to the public health, the two researchers observe that most of the pharmaceutical firms often lure the public to buy and consume their products without proper education on their safety. The authors lament the fact that the drug producing companies and their respective retail outlet/stores use attractive models and celebrities to lure the consumers into buying the drugs. As a result, the marketing strategy simply encourages people to increase their levels and frequency of drug consumption- an event that causes addiction, substance dependence and intoxication. In a separate count, Clarke is categorical that virtually alll drugs are made of synthetic and other natural products that are strongly poisonous in nature but the drug producing companies put their emphases on product branding, sales promotion and sales promotion rather than creating awareness on the potential harm of excessive drug use, consumer education and protection. It is a common observation that typically all direct-to-consumer advertising does not indicate any unpleasant side effects of the drugs or any kind of danger associated with its excessive use. Suffice it to say, the pharmaceutical companies have proven to be very irresponsible as far as consumer protection and drug safety are concerned. In facts and figures, incidences of deaths directly linked to ignorant use of prescription are on the rise from the year 2004. The medical experts largely attribute this trend to direct-to-consumer advertisings more so on the toxic drugs that require monitored clinical administration done by trained professional medical practitioners; average citizens without any background in clinical pharmacy would not fully understand the implications of drug use in human health hence they should not be targeted by the drugs producer in their sales promotion drives. To make matter worse, lack of an overseeing body to regulate the routine practices of the advertising in the pharmaceutical industries further aggravate the extent of loss of human lives across the world. Statistics from the 2004 Word Demographic Survey reveals that close to 1.89 deaths in the year 2004 was caused by irresponsible usage of prescription drugs across the world. 4.0 Is DTCA Ethical or Unethical? According to the regulations of the medical practice, it is unethical to advertise prescription drugs in the media. It is most notable that the primary motive behind direct-to-consumer advertising is the need to promote the consumption of a particular prescription through enticing and attractive mechanisms. The pharmaceutical firms, retail stores, and marketing agencies concentrate wholly on how to increase sales but adamantly neglect other aspects of public safety and consumer protection. Other claims that it helps reduce the cost of healthcare services to the public is inconsequential. Fully aware of that the main objective of the DTCA is to promote sales of drugs among the people by increasing levels of prescription drug use and consumption, the argument that that practice is beneficial to the entire civil population is very flimsy. DTCA is associated with neglect of public health safety, loss of human lives, miscarriages, incidences of intoxication, drug dependence and addiction. These undesirable elements of DTCA grossly violate the standards of rationality otherwise termed as Categorical Imperative. Buy custom Direct-to Consumer Advertising essay

Nurses work with depressed patients almost daily Research Paper

Nurses work with depressed patients almost daily - Research Paper Example Depression has been broadly classified into the following groups; depression with catatonic and melancholic features, psychotic features, atypical depression, bipolar depression, dysthymia, recurrent and single episode and seasonal affective disorder. When patients present to the department and depression is suspected, a differential diagnosis should be made from neurological disorders, other psychiatric disturbances, endocrine pathologies, substance abuse related pathologies and inflammatory and infectious diseases. Depression is a key psychological condition that often accompanies the majority of all illnesses. A study that was carried out by Katon et al., discovered that depression was one of the most prevalent disorders in primary care with a prevalence of approximately 10% (Katon et al., 2010). However, some patients were found to be more susceptible to depression. These include patients suffering from chronic illnesses as they often lack optimism in the improvement of their hea lth. In addition, they also neglect the treatment regimes that have been prescribed for them by the doctors. Due to these factors, depression has been found to have an adverse effect on the current condition of the patient and his or her prognosis. This disease is also widely under diagnosed in patients and it has also been found to be inadequately treated. Precisely, research found that only 50% of patients suffering from depression in primary care are correctly diagnosed (Thoits, 2013). In addition, from these patients only 40% were properly treated and were able to fully recover within a 6 month period. In summation, patients suffering from depression possess a low mood which often leads to negligence and poor adherence to the prescribed treatment regime. Chronic illnesses are often incurable and therapeutic intervention is mainly to alleviate symptoms and improve the patient’s quality of life. Therefore, patients suffering from chronic diseases often possess the misconcep tion that their condition is incurable therefore, they are already approaching death and treatment is not going to largely benefit them or prolong their lifespan. Environmental factors such as family relationships also play a role in the development of depression in primary care patients. New York is one of the most diversely populated cities and has individuals from different parts of the world. It was determined by the New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene that approximately 430Â  000 individuals living in New York suffer from depression (Brown et al., 2013). Similar to the study mentioned above, only 50% of all individuals suffering from depression in New York are correctly diagnosed and three out of five of these individuals are not given the right treatment (Brown et al., 2013). Numerous medical practitioners have recommended that all patients should be screened for depression as this is pertinent illness that has a cure. The New York City Health and Nutrition Examination Survey has discovered that depression in New York has a larger effect on a certain demography. For example, in New York, women were found to have a greater predisposition to depression than men. They were found to be twice as much likely to suffer from the condition. In addition, age was also a determining factor in the rates of depression as the condition was more dominant among the younger population between the ages of 20 and 30 years old. The ratio between

Greek Mythology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Greek Mythology - Essay Example In the Iliad, war is portrayed as useless, violent, and dreadful. War negatively affects all those involved: the warrior, families, and communities. It only brings destructions. There are no definite victors in the Iliad. Vast portions of populations die for nothing due to some of the warriors’ conceit and sentimental choices. For instance, Achilles brings about the demise of his comrade by initially declining to participate in the war, placing the Greek army at a weak position, and afterwards wrongly encouraging his comrade Patroclus to get involved in the war. Even the preliminary root of the war, the abduction of Helen by Paris, a lady from Greece, is an impulsive, unthinking, and self-centered action. Even though the impact of war on is a main issue in Homeric epics, he did not venerate the idea of war and cruelty in his epics. Rather, he embodied the idea of warfare as a natural element of human existence, and that men are encouraged to participate in and that should not perhaps be taken for granted. Though revered war might appear throughout the three abovementioned epics, a comprehensive and detailed analysis of the epics unearths the inconsequential effect of war on warriors, families, and communities. Readers may think that war was a celebrated and adored element of society. Remarkable and brave warriors are treated like gods, and they are considered a supernatural generation of human beings. Nevertheless, in truth, all wars are staged because of personal motives, especially those related to self-indulgence and covetousness. The moral premise given to the concept of war differs greatly from one scholar to another. For instance, the Iliad views war as a requirement of human life and hence the war is a representation of human existence itself, an existence where in the greatest values are demonstrated in tragic bravery. In the other Homeric poem, the Odyssey, there is a firm and